Gender Roles, Subject and Power

       The Middle Ages focused heavily on the Church and labor; medieval life separated men and women to work either in the service of God or for daily maintenance. Class distinctions were divided according to the Church’s hierarchical organization. The natural inferiority of women was practiced with patriarchal dogma stemming from ancient Greece and the Old Testament (Chadwick 44). There were many differences between men and women during the fourth and fourteenth centuries including civil and legal rights, duties to pay homage and taxes, and the ability to present evidence in court (Chadwick 44). Class distinctions allowed upper-class women to have more in common with men of their same class than with women of the lower classes. Lower class women were expected to stay home to manage their families and their properties and relied on their familial male figures for economic dependence. Cultural output incorporated masonry, manuscripts, and embroidery. Although most artworks were produced in monasteries, access to education and convents was restricted unless women were born into noble families (Chadwick 45). Monasticism looked down upon sexuality and women however, nuns became educated as they had had access to learning within their convent.

       The Benedictine Rule shaped the culture dynamics of men and women but two contradicting principles affected how their gender was defined in religious life. Women were seen as sexual threats to male chastity, however, monasticism was embraced under Benedictine Rule because spiritual commonality was a practiced ideal. By the eighth century, manuscripts flourished the communities as learned abbesses of noble families ran scriptoria. During the thirteenth century, there was a new urban working class of women. After the Norman Conquest of 1066, the Bayeux Tapestry was created depicting the military aspects of medieval life. Although it still remains unofficial, this piece is claimed to be created by Queen Mathilda, because of the intricate needlework; there is no evidence of male needleworkers in contemporary documents. Moreover, Queen Mathilda’s needlework is reflective of the common practice taken on by middle-class women (Chadwick 48). There are many scenes with different figures depicted in the tapestry but there are only three accounts of women. Ultimately, the lack of figures displace women from the medieval discourse of political power (Chadwick 48).

Aelfgyva and the Cleric, from The Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1086. 

This presence of a nude male depicts women as sexual threats to male chastity. This is one of the three accounts of women in the Bayeux Tapestry, indicating their lack of political power and involvement. 

       Artists during the Renaissance in Italy commonly went through long processes to become established. Women were restricted from completing these processes because they were prohibited from painters’ guilds, not allowed to receive commissions, restricted by law to own an atelier, and were commonly illiterate (Guerrilla Girls 29). Women artists who did find success were likely given the opportunity by being born into a family of artists that may have needed help in their workshops. Women in this era were still seen as inferior to men and were legally their husband’s property. Artemisia Gentileschi was raped and married to her rapist to “save her reputation” (Guerrilla Girls 36). Although their rights were limited, influential women such as Elizabetta Sirani, founded schools for women artists, and places such as the city of Bologna encouraged intellectual growth by permitting women into their university (Guerrilla Girls 30).

Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith Slaying Holofernes, 1618.
Although women were portrayed as lacking in power, Artemisia Gentileschi made it a statement that they were not afraid to voice their opinions. She demonstrates Judith having power over Holofernes and not having fear to look directly at him while beheading him.

       Life in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries found women entering the workforce at young ages, primarily in textile and garment trades (Guerrilla Girls 41). Artwork that fortunately did get produced by women were often attributed to male artists, such as the case with Judith Leyster, whose paintings were coined that of her husband’s and teacher’s following her death. Academies provided their members guaranteed success upon training; unfortunately, only four women were allowed to hold membership status at a time (Guerrilla Girls 42). Membership in the academies also included education, allowing members to create work exploring the history and mythological subject matter. Women, however, were only allowed to produce work involving portrait, genre, landscape, and flower painting (Guerrilla Girls 42). Angelica Kauffmann took on the challenge of entering this new realm of subjects by creating paintings centered around history. Although she had to use plaster casts resembling male nudes, her work was recognized by men and was respected at the English Royal Academy (Guerilla Girls 44).

       The 19th century involved movements fighting for gender equality and the rise of the male gaze depicted in art and literature. Women were highly objectified in paintings and prostitutes were given more attention in literary works than influential women. Technological advances made it possible to produce art more easily and gave rise to innovations such as the camera, which allowed women such as Julia Margaret Cameron, to enter the photograph realm, which was too recent to be dominated by and exclusive to males (Guerrilla Girls 47). Rosa Bonheur was a French artist who expressed her love and self-identity with animals through her work. She engaged in cross-dressing by obtaining a permit that was to be signed by her doctor every six months. Women of this era were still limited in their self-expression however, Bonheur’s recognition allowed her and her female life partner to venture on vacations “in drag” to satisfy the requirement that women were not traveling alone (Guerrilla Girls 48). Women rarely painted en plein air because they were not allowed to be outside without a male escort. They were still prohibited from recreating live male models, especially nude male models, preventing them from entering a lively area of the art movement during this period. Furthermore, women of the 19th century were not allowed to vote, husbands needed to grant permission for their wives to have a job, and women were allowed to become lawyers or doctors but the process to earn their certification was intentionally created to be very difficult and nearly impossible to complete (Guerrilla Girls 52). The lack of potential credited to women is contradicted by their works; Edmonia Lewis created marble sculptures depicting Abolitionist heroes and Harriet Powers, a freed slave, made quilts portraying Biblical accounts and current events. Women artists of this period not only demonstrated their superior talents and skills in creating artwork deemed only accomplishable by men but also their knowledge of history and politics.

Rosa Bonheur, The Horse Fair, 1853-55. Rosa Bonheur explored new realms of art within her works to challenge the norms to which women were restricted. The Horse Fair represents her self-identity with horses. There are a few horses seen to be causing a riot and exerting their power by rebelling against man's control. This depicts an accurate representation of her life and her attempt to break social norms. 

Links:

Gender reassignment: how dealers tried to attribute female Old Master paintings as work by men

Queen Matilda and The Bayeux Tapestry

Works Cited:

Chadwick, Whitney. Women, Art, and Society: Fourth Edition. Thames & Hudson, 2007.

The Guerrilla Girls' Bedside Companion to the History of Western Art. Penguin, 1998.